gov.noaa.nmfs.inport:46162
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Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center
808-725-5300
1845 Wasp Blvd.
Honolulu
HI
96818
USA
http://www.pifsc.noaa.gov
WWW:LINK-1.0-http--link
Website
Website for this organization
information
8:00 a.m. - 4:30 p.m.
resourceProvider
Akridge, Michael W
(808)725-5483
1845 Wasp Blvd.
Honolulu
HI
96818
michael.akridge@noaa.gov
pointOfContact
2024-02-29T00:00:00
ISO 19115-2 Geographic Information - Metadata Part 2 Extensions for imagery and gridded data
ISO 19115-2:2009(E)
Calcification Rates of Crustose Coralline Algae (CCA) Derived from Calcification Accretion Units (CAUs) Deployed at Coral Reef Sites in Timor-Leste from 2012 to 2014
Timor-Leste: CAUs Coral Triangle
2022-07
revision
2017
publication
NOAA/NMFS/EDM
46162
https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/inport/item/46162
WWW:LINK-1.0-http--link
Full Metadata Record
View the complete metadata record on InPort for more information about this dataset.
information
Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center
808-725-5360
1845 Wasp Blvd.
Honolulu
HI
96818
pifsc.info@noaa.gov
https://www.pifsc.noaa.gov
WWW:LINK-1.0-http--link
Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center Website
Pacific Island Fisheries Science Center homepage
information
8:00 a.m. - 4:30 p.m.
originator
https://accession.nodc.noaa.gov/0157633
WWW:LINK-1.0-http--link
ESD_2015_SOP_CAU_Field.pdf
Calcification Accretion Unit (CAU) Assembly, Deployment, and Recovery Standard Operating Procedure (2015).
download
https://accession.nodc.noaa.gov/0157633
WWW:LINK-1.0-http--link
ESD_2015_SOP_CAU_SampleProcessing.pdf
Calcification Accretion Unit (CAU) Laboratory Analysis Standard Operating Procedure (2015).
download
https://www.pifsc.noaa.gov/cred/pacific_ramp.php
WWW:LINK-1.0-http--link
ESD's Pacific Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program website
NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, Ecosystem Sciences Division official website, Pacific Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program (Pacific RAMP) page.
download
https://www.coraltriangleinitiative.org/
WWW:LINK-1.0-http--link
Coral Triangle Initiative
Official page for Coral Triangle Initiative.
download
https://pifscblog.wordpress.com/2012/11/20/final-count-timor-leste/
WWW:LINK-1.0-http--link
Citation URL
PIFSC blog post, Nov 2012: The final count: summary of mission to Timor-Leste in 2012
download
https://pifscblog.wordpress.com/2014/09/30/timor-leste-atauro/
WWW:LINK-1.0-http--link
Citation URL
PIFSC blog post, Sept 2014: Scientists return to Timor-Leste for reef monitoring mission
download
https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/pacific-islands/ecosystems/surveying-vast-ocean
WWW:LINK-1.0-http--link
Ecosystem Sciences
Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center website
download
https://www.coris.noaa.gov/activities/projects/timor-leste/
WWW:LINK-1.0-http--link
Citation URL
Timor-Leste project portal on the NOAA Coral Reef Information Service website where NOAA's final report for Timor-Leste and the datasets generated by NOAA CREP as part of the project can be downloaded.
download
https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/region/pacific-islands#science
WWW:LINK-1.0-http--link
Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center
Online Resource
download
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26641885
WWW:LINK-1.0-http--link
Baseline Assessment of Net Calcium Carbonate Accretion Rates on U.S. Pacific Reefs
Online Resource
download
tableDigital
Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center. 2017. Interdisciplinary baseline ecosystem assessment surveys to inform ecosystem-based management planning in Timor-Leste: Final Report. Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, PIFSC Special Publication, SP-17-002, 234 p. https://doi.org/10.7289/V5/SP-PIFSC-17-002.
The calcification rate data described here are derived from calcification accretion units (CAUs) that were retrieved from fixed climate survey sites located in coral reef habitats during the NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center (PIFSC), Ecosystem Sciences Division (ESD) led United States Agency for International Development (USAID) mission to Timor-Leste in 2014. CAUs are PVC settlement plates that facilitate the recruitment and colonization of crustose coralline algae, hard corals, and other reef calcifiers. Laboratory experiments show that CCA and coral calcification rates are strongly correlated with seawater chemistry, and changes in carbonate chemistry conditions due to ocean acidification could lead to reduced calcification and accretion rates and ecological phase shifts in coral reef communities.
Coral reef calcium carbonate accretion rates can be estimated by measuring the change in weight of the CAUs between deployment and retrieval. Monitoring net accretion over successive deployments allows for the detection of changes in reef calcification rates over time. Five units were deployed on the seafloor at each CAU site for 2 years. The number of processed CAUs for a site may be less than the number deployed, either because the units were lost or damaged at sea and therefore not recovered, or in rare instances, due to errors during laboratory processing.
This study provides information about spatial and temporal patterns of reef carbonate calcification and accretion rates and serves as a basis for detecting changes associated with changing seawater chemistry due to ocean acidification. These data can also be used in comparative analyses across natural gradients, thereby assisting efforts to determine whether key reef-building taxa can acclimatize to changing oceanographic environments. These data will have immediate, direct impacts on predictions of reef resilience in a higher carbon dioxide (CO2) world and on the design of reef management strategies.
In 2011, NOAA and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Timor-Leste Mission formed a 5-year bi-lateral partnership agreement from 2012 to 2016, in support of the Government of Timor-Leste, particularly the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (MAF), by addressing significant information gaps in their nearshore marine ecosystems. Specifically, MAF asked NOAA to address the following questions:
1.Where are the nearshore marine resources?
2.What are the nearshore marine resources?
3.How are they changing over time and what threats are potentially causing these changes?
4.What approaches are needed to manage and conserve the nearshore marine resources?
With financial support from USAID and in-kind support from the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program (CRCP), the NOAA Ecosystem Sciences Division (ESD) conducted baseline ecosystem assessment surveys to inform ecosystem-based management planning in Timor-Leste. The primary activities conducted by NOAA to answer these questions included:
1.satellite mapping of nearshore habitats,
2.conducting coral reef ecosystem assessments,
3.establishing ecological baselines for climate change, and
4.building management capacity by developing a spatial data framework
The calcification rate data described herein resulted from the third activity to establish ecological baselines for climate change. CAU data collected herein can be used to establish calcium carbonate accretion rate baselines and assess change in reef accretion rates due to ocean acidification and other environmental drivers.
NOAA Fisheries, PIFSC Ecosystem Sciences Division and partners, and funded by the United States Agency for International Development
completed
Barkley, Hannah C
1845 Wasp Blvd.
Honolulu
HI
96818
hannah.barkley@noaa.gov
pointOfContact
Weible, Rebecca M
1845 Wasp Blvd, Bldg 176
Honolulu
HI
96818
rebecca.weible@noaa.gov
custodian
asNeeded
483
Climate, Biodiversity and Fisheries in the Coral Triangle: Embracing the E in Ecosystem Approaches to Fisheries Management
theme
CRCP Project
Numeric Data Sets > Calcification Rate
theme
CoRIS Discovery Thesaurus
EARTH SCIENCE > Biosphere > Aquatic Habitat > Reef Habitat
EARTH SCIENCE > Biosphere > Vegetation > Algae > Algal Cover
EARTH SCIENCE > Biosphere > Vegetation > Algae > Algal Growth > Calcification Rate
EARTH SCIENCE > Biosphere > Vegetation > Algae > Calcareous Macroalgae
EARTH SCIENCE > Biosphere > Vegetation > Algae > Crustose Coralline Algae
EARTH SCIENCE > Biosphere > Vegetation > Algae > Encrusting Macroalgae
EARTH SCIENCE > Biosphere > Vegetation > Algae > Fleshy Macroalgae
EARTH SCIENCE > Biosphere > Vegetation > Algae > Reef Monitoring and Assessment
EARTH SCIENCE > Biosphere > Vegetation > Algae > Reef Monitoring and Assessment > Calcification Accretion Unit (CAU)
EARTH SCIENCE > Biosphere > Zoology > Corals > Reef Monitoring and Assessment
EARTH SCIENCE > Biosphere > Zoology > Corals > Reef Monitoring and Assessment > Baseline studies
EARTH SCIENCE > Biosphere > Zoology > Corals > Reef Monitoring and Assessment > In Situ Biological
EARTH SCIENCE > Oceans > Coastal Processes > Coral Reefs
EARTH SCIENCE > Oceans > Ocean Chemistry > Calcification
EARTH SCIENCE > Oceans > Ocean Chemistry > Carbonate Chemistry
EARTH SCIENCE > Oceans > Ocean Chemistry > Ocean Acidification
theme
CoRIS Theme Thesaurus
CALCIFICATION
theme
NODC DATA TYPES THESAURUS
in situ
laboratory analyses
theme
NODC Observation Types Thesaurus
CORAL REEF STUDIES
Coral Reef Conservation Program
Coral Triangle Initiative
theme
NODC Project Names Thesaurus
US DOC; NOAA; NMFS; Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center; Ecosystem Sciences Division
theme
NODC Submitting Institution Names Thesaurus
COUNTRY/TERRITORY > Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste (East Timor) (09S126E0001)
OCEAN BASIN > Indian Ocean > Timor Sea > Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste (East Timor) (09S126E0001)
place
CoRIS Place Thesaurus
Indian Ocean
Timor Sea
place
NODC Sea Area Names Thesaurus
CAU
CRED
CREP
Calcification Plate
Coral Reef Ecosystem Division
Coral Reef Ecosystem Program
ESD
Ecosystem Sciences Division
PIFSC
Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center
Settling Plate
USAID
United States Agency for International Development
calcification accretion unit
theme
triennial
temporal
Atauro
Baucau
Bobonaro
Dili
Lautem
Manatuto
Timor-Leste
Vila MPA
place
Calcification Accretion Unit (CAU)
instrument
DOC/NOAA/NMFS/PIFSC > Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, U.S. Department of Commerce
dataCentre
Global Change Master Directory (GCMD) Data Center Keywords
2017-04-24
publication
8.5
Timor Leste
project
InPort
otherRestrictions
Cite As: Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, [Date of Access]: Calcification Rates of Crustose Coralline Algae (CCA) Derived from Calcification Accretion Units (CAUs) Deployed at Coral Reef Sites in Timor-Leste from 2012 to 2014 [Data Date Range], https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/inport/item/46162.
NOAA provides no warranty, nor accepts any liability occurring from any incomplete, incorrect, or misleading data, or from any incorrect, incomplete, or misleading use of the data. It is the responsibility of the user to determine whether or not the data is suitable for the intended purpose.
otherRestrictions
Access Constraints: None
otherRestrictions
Use Constraints: Please cite PIFSC Ecosystem Sciences Division (ESD) when using the data.
Suggested Citation:
Ecosystem Sciences Division; Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center (2017). Calcification Rates of Crustose Coralline Algae (CCA) Derived from Calcification Accretion Units (CAUs) Deployed at Coral Reef Sites in Timor-Leste from 2012 to 2014. NOAA's National Center for Environmental Information, https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/inport/item/46162.
otherRestrictions
Distribution Liability: While every effort has been made to ensure that these data are accurate and reliable within the limits of the current state of the art, NOAA cannot assume liability for any damages caused by errors or omissions in the data, nor as a result of the failure of the data to function on a particular system. NOAA makes no warranty, expressed or implied, nor does the fact of distribution constitute such a warranty.
unclassified
Not applicable
Not applicable
Assessing cryptic reef diversity of colonizing marine invertebrates using Autonomous Reef Monitoring Structures (ARMS) deployed at coral reef sites in Timor-Leste from 2012 to 2014
NOAA/NMFS/EDM
46159
crossReference
Benthic images collected at coral reef sites in Timor-Leste from 2012-2014
NOAA/NMFS/EDM
46160
crossReference
Benthic percent cover derived from analysis of benthic images collected at coral reef sites in Timor-Leste in 2013 and 2014
NOAA/NMFS/EDM
46161
crossReference
Coral reef fish biomass and benthic cover data from Timor-Leste in June 2013
NOAA/NMFS/EDM
32998
crossReference
Depth soundings from a single beam echo sounder collected around the nearshore areas of Timor-Leste in 2012 and 2013
NOAA/NMFS/EDM
25307
crossReference
Nearshore Benthic Habitats of Timor-Leste Derived from WorldView-2 Satellite Imagery
NOAA/NMFS/EDM
29128
crossReference
Satellite-derived bathymetry for nearshore benthic habitats in Timor-Leste
NOAA/NMFS/EDM
46150
crossReference
Water chemistry at coral reef sites in Timor-Leste from discrete surface and bottom water samples collected in 2013 and 2014
NOAA/NMFS/EDM
46163
crossReference
Water temperature data from Subsurface Temperature Recorders (STRs) deployed at coral reef sites in Timor-Leste from 2012 to 2014
NOAA/NMFS/EDM
46164
crossReference
WorldView-2 Satellite Image Inventory for Timor-Leste
NOAA/NMFS/EDM
46151
crossReference
NOAA Data Management Plan (DMP)
NOAA/NMFS/EDM
46162
https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/inportserve/waf/noaa/nmfs/pifsc/dmp/pdf/46162.pdf
WWW:LINK-1.0-http--link
NOAA Data Management Plan (DMP)
NOAA Data Management Plan for this record on InPort.
information
crossReference
eng; US
biota
After CAU units are deployed and recovered, the associated metadata is entered by the OCC team into the existing Oracle APEX mission application available on the research vessel, where it is eventually migrated to the NOAA Fisheries Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center (PIFSC) enterprise Oracle database. Upon cruise completion, each CAU is given the necessary data entry fields used in laboratory processing through the Oracle APEX CAU application. Laboratory analysis is conducted in batches of 25 CAU units and is conducted according to the Standard Operating Procedure (URL 7). All weights are entered digitally using an analytical balance to avoid data entry errors with such precise measurements (up to 3 decimal places). Once all steps of processing have been completed, all data entry fields in the Oracle CAU Application are verified as accurate and complete, then final calcification rates per unit are calculated. Data are then extracted from the Oracle database and distributed to the NOAA ocean data archive by region and year of recovery.
Timor-Leste including Atauro, Baucau, Bobonaro, Dili, Lautem, and Manatuto
125.01327
127.31222
-8.85329
-8.22441
Extent of CAU deployments in 2012 and recoveries in 2014 at climate survey sites in Timor-Leste (Atauro, Baucau, Bobonaro, Dili, Lautem, and Manatuto). These climate survey sites in Timor-Leste were a onetime, joint NOAA and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) project.
Date first CAU was deployed during the shore-based deployment mission in 2012, and date last CAU was recovered during the shore-based recovery mission in 2014. | Currentness: Ground Condition
2012-10-15
2014-10-09
As the survey methods described and used herein are also implemented as part of the NOAA National Coral Reef Monitoring Program (NCRMP) an ecosystem-scale interdisciplinary coral reef monitoring program. The data from Timor-Leste are directly comparable to and informed by data collected by NOAA-ESD throughout the U.S. Pacific Islands and Territories. Furthermore, the methods used for establishing ecological baselines for climate change in Timor-Leste (Chapter 4) are being adopted and implemented at 21 sites across eight member states of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission within the Western Pacific (WESTPAC) region. These data provide a foundation for comparing the ecological baselines under current and future stresses associated with climate change in the Coral Triangle region.
false
eng
false
Data View
Calcification Accretion Unit Entity
2022-08-03
publication
CSV - Comma Separated Values (Text)
PDF - Adobe Portable Document Format
National Centers for Environmental Information - Silver Spring, Maryland
(301) 713-3277
NOAA/NESDIS E/OC SSMC3, 4th Floor, 1351 East-West Highway
Silver Spring
MD
20910-3282
Email preferred
distributor
https://accession.nodc.noaa.gov/0170031
WWW:LINK-1.0-http--link
ESD_NCRMP_CAU_2014_CT.csv
CAU unit recoveries collected across climate survey sites at Timor-Leste (Atauro, Baucau, Bobonaro, Dili, Lautem, and Manatuto) by the PIFSC Ecosystem Sciences Division during a shore-based recovery mission in 2014 (MP1419). These CAU units were deployed during a deployment shore-based mission in 2012 (SB1215). Data include calcification rates per CAU unit.
download
https://accession.nodc.noaa.gov/0170031
WWW:LINK-1.0-http--link
ESD_NCRMP_CAU_2014_CT_QC.pdf
Quality control report generated for recovered CAU data from sites across the climate survey sites in Timor-Leste (Atauro, Baucau, Bobonaro, Dili, Lautem, and Manatuto) by the PIFSC Ecosystem Sciences Division during the recovery shore-based mission in 2014 (MP1419).
download
dataset
Accuracy
Prior to processing the calcification accretion unit (CAU) samples, laboratory analysts are trained to properly use relevant lab equipment (analytical balance, vacuum filtration pump, etc.) and are familiarized with the data entry tool/spreadsheet. Laboratory analysts are also required to go through the CAU Processing Standard Operating Procedure and other training materials.
Completeness Measure
Calcification Accretion Units (CAUs) that have been deployed may not have been recovered due to logistical constraints of the following mission or could not be found when divers returned to the site. This can be quantified by comparing the number of recovered units to the number of units originally deployed (typically, 5 units per site).
Completeness Report
The calcification rate and ratio of calcified materials to fleshy materials are determined for each Calcification Accretion Unit (CAU) recovered by the PIFSC Ecosystem Sciences Division (ESD). Scripps Institution of Oceanography (Scripps) staff may conduct additional analyses of specific units to determine functional group coverage and to determine species recruitment rates based on the results of analyzed photos collected during the unit recovery and disassembly process.
Additionally, data from the CAUs processed in 2012 that do not meet the processing criteria set in 2012 - that is, if the difference between the final two subsequent dry weights exceeds 0.2 grams, then those data have been omitted from the final dataset described herein.
Conceptual Consistency
The sampling procedure is based on the protocols developed by Price et al. 2012. While this project followed the same overall protocols, slight modifications were made after the first set of recovered Calcification Accretion Units (CAUs) were processed in 2012. Specifically, the following changes were implemented in 2013: 1) camera settings (adjusted to fit laboratory light conditions), and 2) use of freshwater in lieu of seawater during plate photo-documentation (seawater was not readily available in the new facility). Further, the processing procedures were also modified in 2013 such that the acceptable criteria for samples to be considered completely dry was set to 0.1 grams instead of 0.2 grams - that is, if two subsequent dry weights do not fall within the identified acceptable range (0.1 grams), the drying process will continue until this criteria is met.
Assembled calcification accretion units (CAUs) are attached to the benthos using stainless steel threaded rods. Five CAUs are deployed in roughly 15m depths at permanent monitoring sites established by the NOAA Fisheries, Ecosystem Sciences Division. Calcareous organisms, primarily crustose coralline algae and encrusting corals, recruit to these CAUs and accrete/calcify carbonate skeletons over 3 year deployments. Once recovered from the seafloor, the CAUs are processed to provide estimates of net calcification. CAUs have been deployed and replaced at existing, long-term monitoring sites during National Coral Reef Monitoring Program (NCRMP) cruises, in accordance with protocols developed by Price et al. 2012.
CALCIFICATION ACCRETION UNIT (CAU) ASSEMBLY, DEPLOYMENT and RECOVERY
CAUs are composed of two 10 x 10 centimeter (cm) flat, square, gray PVC plates, stacked 1 cm apart.
Five CAU units are deployed per site on individual stainless steel stakes driven into the substrate. The units are deployed in a clustered group with the spacing between each unit being 0.5 to 5 meters. CAU sites are situated at an average depth of 15 meters. Units are placed so the CAU plates are ~10 cm above the surface substrate and the top of the CAU plate is parallel to the surface of the water.
CAU units are recovered from the seafloor 2 to 3 years after deployment. Refer to the data files for the individual CAU site to determine the exact deployment time of a specific unit.
Refer to the Calcification Accretion Unit (CAU) Assembly, Deployment, and Recovery Standard Operating Procedure (2015) for a detailed description of the protocols.
2015-08-01T00:00:00
Weible, Rebecca M
rebecca.weible@noaa.gov
processor
CALCIFICATION ACCRETION UNIT (CAU) LABORATORY ANALYSIS
Once CAU units are recovered they are disassembled and each plate is rinsed with freshwater to remove loose sediment, sand and mobile fauna. The plates are photographed and individual images are captured of the Upper Plate, Top Side; Upper Plate, Bottom Side; Lower Plate, Top Side; Lower Plate, Bottom Side. These images can be analyzed to determine benthic composition on each plate surface. If pieces of calcified material fall off during the photographing process, the pieces are retained with the plate for the dissolution process.
After the plates have been photographed they are rinsed with fresh water and placed on a pre-weighed drying plate along with any dislodged pieces, and left to begin drying at room temperature for 24 hours and to allow excess water to be removed. The drying plate assembly is then placed in the oven to dry at 60 degrees Celsius. If the difference in weights is less than 0.2 grams, the plates are considered dry and no further drying/weighing is required. If the difference in weights is greater than 0.2 grams the drying/reweighing process is repeated for as many 24-hour cycles as needed to obtain a difference of less than 0.2 grams. It should be noted that since the initial sample processing in 2012, the standard weighing protocol has since been improved such that the acceptable weight difference is 0.1 grams.
Once the plates are dry, each plate is placed in 5-10% Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) solution to dissolve the calcium carbonate materials. The plate is scraped to remove all materials and rinsed with the dilute HCl solution. The plate is then placed in the oven at 60 degrees Celsius to dry for 24 hours before the dry plate is obtained. Through the entire dissolution process all dilute HCl rinse solution is preserved for later filtering.
The dilute HCl rinse process is repeated on all materials removed from the plate until the dissolution process has stopped and all calcium carbonate material has been removed. The fleshy material and used dilute HCl rinse materials are then separated using a vacuum filtration pump by pouring the solution into a Buchner funnel, mesh layer and pre-weighed filter paper. The filter paper and fleshy material are then dried and weighed to determine the weight of fleshy algae present on each plate. The weight of calcified materials on each plate is determined by difference, where the initial weight of the dried plate (prior to the dissolution process) minus the fleshy material weight equals the weight of carbonate material dissolved. The resulting calcification rates are reported in units of grams/area/time.
Refer to the Calcification Accretion Unit (CAU) Laboratory Analysis Standard Operating Procedure (2015) for a detailed description of the protocols.
2015-09-01T00:00:00
Weible, Rebecca M
rebecca.weible@noaa.gov
processor
Calcification Accretion Unit (CAU) Assembly, Deployment, and Recovery Standard Operating Procedure (2015)
2015-08-01
publication
Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, PIFSC
https://accession.nodc.noaa.gov/0157633
WWW:LINK-1.0-http--link
ESD_2015_SOP_CAU_Field.pdf
Source Citation URL
information
originator
Calcification Accretion Unit (CAU) Laboratory Analysis Standard Operating Procedure (2015)
2015-09-01
publication
Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, PIFSC
https://accession.nodc.noaa.gov/0157633
WWW:LINK-1.0-http--link
ESD_2015_SOP_CAU_SampleProcessing.pdf
Source Citation URL
information
originator
Price NN, Martz TR, Brainard RE, Smith JE (2012) Diel Variability in Seawater pH Relates to Calcification and Benthic Community Structure on Coral Reefs. PLoS ONE 7(8): e43843. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0043843
2012-08-28
publication
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0043843
WWW:LINK-1.0-http--link
Source Citation URL
Source Citation URL
information
originator
otherRestrictions
otherRestrictions
Access Constraints: None | Use Constraints: None