Section 7: Citations and References for All Species in the Greater Atlantic Region

GARFO Species List

Whales:

North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis) (73 FR 12024; Recovery plan: NMFS 2005)

Fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus) (35 FR 18319; Recovery plan: NMFS 2010a)

Sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis) (35 FR 18319; Recovery plan: NMFS 2011)

Sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) (35 FR 18319; Recovery plan: NMFS 2010b)

Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) (35 FR 18319; Recovery plan: NMFS 2020)

Sea Turtles:

Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) (76 FR 58868; Recovery plan: NMFS & USFWS 2008) [1]

Leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) (35 FR 8491; Recovery plan: NMFS & USFWS 1992a)

Green turtle (Chelonia mydas) (81 FR 20057; Recovery plan: NMFS & USFWS 1991) [2]

Kemp’s ridley turtle (Lepidochelys kempii) (35 FR 18319; Recovery plan: NMFS et al. 2011)

Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) (35 FR 8491; Recovery plan: NMFS & USFWS 1992b)

Fish:

Shortnose sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum) (32 FR 4001; Recovery plan: NMFS 1998a)

Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus) (77 FR 5880 and 77 FR 5914)[3]

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) (74 FR 29344; Recovery plan: NMFS & USFWS 2019)[4]

Giant Manta Ray (Manta birostris) (83 FR 2916)

Oceanic Whitetip Shark (Carcharhinus longimanus) (83 FR 4153; Recovery plan: NMFS 2024)

Critical Habitat

North Atlantic right whale (81 FR 4837)
Loggerhead turtle (79 FR 4837)
Atlantic sturgeon (82 FR 39160)
Atlantic salmon (74 FR 29300)

Loggerhead sea turtle Critical Habitat (Northwest Atlantic Ocean DPS): On July 10, 2014, the USFWS and NOAA Fisheries published two separate final rules in the Federal Register designating critical habitat for the Northwest Atlantic DPS of loggerhead sea turtles under the ESA (79 FR 39755 for nesting beaches under USFWS jurisdiction; 79 FR 39856 for marine areas under NOAA Fisheries jurisdiction). Effective August 11, 2014, NOAA Fisheries' final rule for marine areas designated 38 occupied areas within the at-sea range of the Northwest Atlantic DPS. These marine areas of critical habitat contain one or a combination of: nearshore reproductive habitat, overwintering habitat, breeding habitat, migratory habitat, and Sargassum habitat. The only critical habitat for loggerhead sea turtles in the Greater Atlantic Region is Sargassum habitat located offshore of the DelMarVa peninsula beyond the continental shelf break. 

Right whale Critical Habitat: Great South Channel, east of Cape Cod, and Cape Cod and Massachusetts Bays.  On February 20, 2015, NOAA Fisheries published a proposed rule to revise the critical habitat for endangered North Atlantic right whales in the Atlantic Ocean (80 FR 9313). The proposed revision would expand the critical habitat from 4,640 square nautical miles to roughly 29,945 square nautical miles and include feeding areas in the Gulf of Maine/Georges Bank region and calving grounds from southern North Carolina to northern Florida.  On January 27, 2016, the critical habitat revision was finalized in a final rule (81 FR 4837), which designated approximately 29,763 square nautical miles of marine habitat in the Gulf of Maine and Georges Bank region (Unit 1) and off the Southeast U.S. coast (unit 2).

Atlantic sturgeon Critical Habitat: Critical habitat for Atlantic sturgeon was designated on August 17, 2017 for the five DPSs (82 FR 39160).  Specific occupied areas designated as critical habitat for the Gulf of Maine DPS of Atlantic sturgeon contain approximately 244 kilometers (km; 152 miles) of aquatic habitat in the following rivers of Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts: Penobscot, Kennebec, Androscoggin, Piscataqua, Cocheco, Salmon Falls, and Merrimack. Specific occupied areas designated as critical habitat for the New York Bight DPS of Atlantic sturgeon contain approximately 547 km (340 miles) of aquatic habitat in the following rivers of Connecticut, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware: Connecticut, Housatonic, Hudson, and Delaware. Specific occupied areas designated as critical habitat for the Chesapeake Bay DPS of Atlantic sturgeon contain approximately 773 km (480 miles) of aquatic habitat in the following rivers of Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia: Potomac, Rappahannock, York, Pamunkey, Mattaponi, James, Nanticoke, and the following other water body: Marshyhope Creek.

Atlantic salmon Critical Habitat: Critical habitat for Atlantic salmon was designated on June 19, 2009, entirely within Maine (73 FR 29300). Forty-five specific areas containing over 19,000 kilometers of rivers and streams and 799 square kilometers of lakes and ponds were identified as having the physical and biological features essential to the conservation of the species, which may require special management or protections.

Species Recovery Plans

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). 1998a. Final Recovery Plan for the Shortnose Sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum).

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). 2005. Recovery Plan for the North Atlantic Right Whale (Eubalaena glacialis).

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). 2010a. Final Recovery Plan for the Fin Whale (Balaenoptera physalus).

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). 2010b. Final Recovery Plan for the Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus).

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). 2011. Final Recovery Plan for the Sei Whale (Balaenoptera borealis).

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). 2020. Recovery Plan for the Blue Whale (Balaenoptera musculus) - First Revision. National Marine Fisheries Service, Office of Protected Resources, Silver Spring, MD. 

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). 2024. Oceanic Whitetip Shark (Carcharhinus longimanus) Endangered Species Act (ESA) Recovery Plan. July 2024. National Marine Fisheries Service, Office of Protected Resources.

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 1991. Recovery Plan for U.S. Population of Atlantic Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas). 

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 1992a. Recovery Plan for Leatherback Turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) in the U.S. Caribbean, Atlantic, and Gulf of Mexico.

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 1992b. Recovery Plan for the Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) in the U.S. Caribbean, Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico.

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 2008. Recovery Plan for the Northwest Atlantic Population of the Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta).

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), and SEMARNAT. 2011. Bi-National Recovery Plan for the Kemp's Ridley Sea Turtle (Lepidochelys kempii).

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 2019. Recovery Plan for the Gulf of Maine Distinct Population Segment of Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar).

Additional References

ASMFC (Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission). 1998. Atlantic Sturgeon Stock Assessment. Peer Review Report.

ASSRT (Atlantic Sturgeon Status Review Team). 2007. Status Review of Atlantic Sturgeon.

Bain, M.B. 1997. Atlantic and shortnose sturgeons of the Hudson River: common and divergent life history attributes. Environmental Biology of Fishes 48:347-358.

Bain, M.B., K. Arend, N. Haley, S. Hayes, J. Knight, S. Nack, D. Peterson, and M. Walsh. 1998. Sturgeon of the Hudson River. Final Report on 1993-1996 Research.

Bain, M.B., Haley, N., Peterson, D.L., Arend, K.K., Mills, K.E. and Sullivan, P.J. 2007. Recovery of a US endangered fish. PLoS One, 2(1), p.e168.

Bain, M.B., N. Haley, D. Peterson, J.R. Waldman, and K. Arend. 2000. Harvest and habitats of Atlantic sturgeon Acipenser oxyrinchus Mitchill, 1815 in the Hudson River estuary: Lessons for sturgeon conservation. Boletin Instituto Espanol de Oceanografia 16(1-4):43-53.

Bain, M.B., Peterson, D.L., Arend, K.K. and Haley, N., 1999. Atlantic sturgeon population monitoring for the Hudson River estuary: sampling design and gear recommendations. Final Report to the Hudson River Fisheries Unit, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, New Paltz.

Balazik, M. 2017. First verified occurrence of the shortnose sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum) in the James River, Virginia. Fishery Bulletin 115(2):196-200.

Balazik, M.T., G.C. Garman, J.P. Van Eenennaam, J. Mohler, and L.C. Woods. 2012a. Empirical Evidence of Fall Spawning by Atlantic Sturgeon in the James River, Virginia. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 141(6):1465-1471.

Balazik, M. T. and J. A. Musick. 2015. Dual annual spawning races in Atlantic sturgeon. PLoS ONE 10(5): e0128234.

Balazik, M. T., K. J. Reine, A. J. Spells, C. A. Fredrickson, M. L. Fine, G. C. Garman, and S. P. McIninch. 2012b. The potential for vessel interactions with adult Atlantic sturgeon in the James River, Virginia. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 32(6): 1062-1069.

Baltimore Sun. 2007. Rare catch could spawn resurgence of sturgeon in bay. June 13, 2007. http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2007-06-13/news/0706130110_1_sturgeon-chesapeake-bay-university-of-maryland.

Bath, D. W., J. M. O'Connor, J. B. Alber, and L. G. Arvidson. 1981. Development and identification of larval Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus) and shortnose sturgeon (A. brevirostrum) from the Hudson River estuary, New York. Copeia 3: 711-717.

Baumgartner, M.F., N.S.J. Lysiak, C. Schuman, J. Urban-Rich, and F.W. Wenzel. 2011. Diel vertical migration behavior of Calanus finmarchicus and its influence on right and sei whale occurrence. Marine Ecology Progress Series 423:167-184.

Benson, J. 2016. Endangered Atlantic sturgeon found off sub base could alter plans for piers. The Day. June 18, 2016. http://www.theday.com/article/20160617/NWS01/160619212.

Bjorndal, K.A. 1997. Foraging Ecology and Nutrition of Sea Turtles. The Biology of Sea Turtles. pp. 199-231.

Bonfil, R., S. Clarke, and H. Nakano. 2008. The biology and ecology of the oceanic whitetip shark, Carcharhinus longimanus. Pages 128-139 in M.D. Camhi, E.K. Pikitch, and E.A. Babcock (eds.) Sharks of the Open Ocean: Biology, Fisheries, and Conservation. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Boston Globe. 2012. From depths of the Charles, an endangered species surfaces. February 20, 2012. https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2012/02/20/from-depths-charles-ancient-species/B0NFGOT45R3TewoIZ5uyGL/story.html.

Braun-McNeill J., and S.P. Epperly. 2004. Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Sea Turtles in the Western North Atlantic and the U.S. Gulf of Mexico from Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics Survey (MRFSS). Marine Fisheries Review 64(4):50-56.

Braun-McNeill, J., C.R. Sasso., S.P. Epperly, and C. Rivero. 2008. Feasibility of using sea surface temperature imagery to mitigate cheloniid sea turtle-fishery interactions off the coast of northeastern USA. Endangered Species Research 5:257-266.

Breece, M.W., Fox, D.A. and Oliver, M.J. 2018. Environmental drivers of adult Atlantic sturgeon movement and residency in the Delaware Bay. Marine and Coastal Fisheries, 10(2), pp.269-280.

Breece, M.W., A.L. Higgs, and D.A. Fox. 2021. Spawning intervals, timing, and riverine use of adult Atlantic sturgeon in the Hudson River. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. https://doi.org/10.1002/tafs.10304.

Breece, M.W., M.J. Oliver, M.A. Cimino, and D.A. Fox. 2013. Shifting Distributions of Adult Atlantic Sturgeon Amidst Post-Industrialization and Future Impacts in the Delaware River: a Maximum Entropy Approach. PLoS ONE 8(11):e81321. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0081321.

Brown, M.W., O.C. Nichols, M.K. Marx, and J.N. Ciano. 2002. Surveillance, Monitoring and Management of North Atlantic Right Whales in Cape Cod Bay and Adjacent Waters - 2002.

Brundage III, H.M. 2021. Occurrence of Shortnose Sturgeon in the Tidal Schuylkill River, an Urbanized and Industrialized Tributary of the Delaware River. Urban Naturalist, No. 47.

Brundage, H.M., and R.E. Meadows. 1982. The Atlantic sturgeon in the Delaware River estuary. Fisheries Bulletin 80:337-343.

Brundage, H.M., and J.C. O'Herron. 2009. Investigations of Juvenile Shortnose and Atlantic Sturgeon in the Lower Tidal Delaware River. Bulletin New Jersey Academy of Science 52(2):1-8.

Buckley, J., and B. Kynard. 1983. Studies on shortnose sturgeon. Final report. National Marine Fisheries Service, Gloucester, Massachusetts. 38 pp.

Buckley, J. and Kynard, B. 1981. Spawning and rearing of shortnose sturgeon from the Connecticut River. The Progressive Fish‐Culturist, 43(2), pp.74-76.

Buckley, J., and B. Kynard. 1985. Yearly movements of shortnose sturgeon in the Connecticut River. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 114:813-820.

Buerkett, C., and B. Kynard. 1993. Sturgeons of the Taunton River and Mt. Hope Bay: Distribution, habitats, and movements. Final Report for Project AFC-24-1 to Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries. 15 pp.

Burton, W.H., H.M. Brundage, and J.C. O’Herron. 2005. Delaware River adult and juvenile sturgeon survey – winter 2005. Prepared for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Philadelphia District. Versar, Inc., Columbia, Maryland. 36 pp.

Bushnoe, T.M., J.A. Musick, and D.S. Ha. 2005. Essential Spawning and Nursery Habitat of Atlantic Sturgon (Acipenser oxyrichus) in Virginia.

Calvo, L., H.M. Brundage III, D. Haidvogel, D. Kreeger, R. Thomas, J.C. O'Herron II, and E.N. Powell. 2010. Effects of Flow Dynamics, Salinity, and Water Quality on the Atlantic Sturgeon, the Shortnose Sturgeon and the Eastern Oyster in the Oligohaline Zone of the Delaware Estuary. Final Report to USACE, Philadelphia District.

Carlson, D. M. and K. W. Simpson. 1987. Gut Contents of Juvenile Shortnose Sturgeon in the Upper Hudson Estuary. Copeia 1987(3): 796-802.

CBS Boston. 2012. Hanover Canoers Capture 6-Foot Sturgeon With Their Bare Hands. February 20, 2012. http://boston.cbslocal.com/2012/05/31/hanover-canoers-capture-200-pound-sturgeon-with-their-bare-hands/.

CETAP. 1982. A characterization of marine mammals and turtles in the mid-and north Atlantic areas of the US outer continental shelf. Final report. Sponsored by the Bureau of Land Management under contract AA551-CT8-48.: 450.

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Cole, T.V.N., P. Hamilton, A.G. Henry, P. Duley, R.M Pace, B.N. White, and T. Frasier. 2013. Evidence of a North Atlantic right whale Eubalaena glacialis mating ground. Endangered Species Research 21:55-64.

Conant, T.A., P.H. Dutton, T. Eguchi, S.P. Epperl;y, C.C. Fahy, M.H. Godfrey, S.L. MacPherson, E.E. Possaredt, B.A. Schroeder, J.A. Seminoff, M.L. Snover, C.M. Upite, and B.W. Witherington. 2009. Loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) 2009 status review under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. 222 pp.

Crance, J. H. 1986. Habitat Suitability Index Models and Instream Flow Suitability Curves: Shortnose Sturgeon. Biological Report, 82(10.129).

Dadswell, M.J. 1979. Biology and population characteristics of the shortnose sturgeon, Acipenser brevirostrum LeSueur 1818 (Osteichthyes: Acipenseridae), in the Saint John River estuary, New Brunswick, Canada. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 57(11), pp.2186-2210.

Dadswell, M. 2006. A review of the status of Atlantic sturgeon in Canada, with comparisons to populations in the United States and Europe. Fisheries, 31, 218-229.

Dadswell, M.J., B.D. Taubert, T.S. Squiers, D. Marchette, and J. Buckley. 1984. Synopsis of biological data on shortnose sturgeon, Acipenser brevirostrum LeSueur 1818 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 14 and FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) Fisheries Synopsis (Vol. 140).

Day. 2016. "Endangered Atlantic sturgeon found off sub base could alter plans for piers." June 17, 2016. https://www.theday.com/article/20160617/NWS01/160619212

Dionne, P.E., G.B. Zydlewski, M.T. Kinnison, J. Zydlewski, and G.S. Wippelhauser. 2013. Reconsidering residency: characterization and conservation implications of complex migratory patterns of shortnose sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 70:119-127.

Dodge, K.L., J.M. Logan, and M.E. Lutcavage. 2011. Foraging ecology of leatherback sea turtles in the Western North Atlantic determined through multi-tissue stable isotope analyses. Marine Biology, 12.

Dovel, W. L. 1981. The Endangered Shortnose Sturgeon of the Hudson Estuary: Its Life History and Vulnerability to the Activities of Man. An Investigation by the Oceanic Society under Contract (No. DE-AC 39-79 RC-10074) to the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, Washington D.C.

Dovel, W. L. and T. J. Berggren. 1983. Atlantic sturgeon of the Hudson estuary, New York. New York Fish and Game Journal 30(2): 140-172.

Dovel, W.L., A.W. Pekovitch, and T.J. Berggren. 1992. Biology of the Shortnose Sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum  Lesueur, 1818) in the Hudson River Estuary, New York. Pages 187-216 in C.L. Smith, editor, Estuarine Research in the 1980s. State University of New York Press, Albany, New York.

Duffy, C.A.J. and Abbott, D. 2003. Sightings of mobulid rays from northern New Zealand, with confirmation of the occurrence of Manta birostris in New Zealand waters.

Dzaugis, M.P. 2013. Diet and Prey Availability of Sturgeons in the Penobscot River. M.S. Thesis. University of Maine. 36 pp.

EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). 2003. Ambient water quality criteria for dissolved oxygen, water clarity and chlorophyll a for the Chesapeake Bay and its tidal tributaries.

Epperly, S.P., J. Braun, and A.J. Chester. 1995a. Aerial surveys for sea turtles in North Carolina inshore waters. Fishery Bulletin, 93, 254-261.

Epperly, S.P., J. Braun, A.J. Chester, F.A. Cross, J.V. Merriner and P.A. Tester. 1995b. Winter Distribution of Sea Turtles in the Vicinity of Cape Hatteras and their Interactions with the Summer Flounder Trawl Fishery. Bulletin of Marine Science, 56(2), 547-568.

Epperly, S.P., J. Braun, and A. Veishlow. 1995c. Sea Turtles in North Carolina Waters. Conservation Biology, 9(2), 384-394.

ERC, Inc. (Environmental Research and Consulting, Inc.). 2006. Acoustic telemetry study of the movements of shortnose sturgeon in the Delaware River and bay: progress report for 2003-2004. Prepared for NOAA Fisheries. 11 pp.

ERC, Inc. (Environmental Research and Consulting, Inc.). 2009. Final report of investigations of shortnose sturgeon early life stages in the Delaware River, Spring 2007 and 2008. Prepared for NJ Division of Fish and Wildlife. 40 pp.

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Fernandes, S.J. 2008. Population Demography, Distribution, and Movement Patterns of Atlantic and Shortnose Sturgeons in the Penobscot River Estuary, Maine. Master Thesis, The University of Maine.

Fernandes, S.J., G.B Zydlewski, J.D. Zydlewski, G.S. Wippelhauser, M.T. Kinnison. 2010. Seasonal Distribution and Movements of Shortnose Sturgeon and Atlantic Sturgon in the Penobscot River Estuary, Maine. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 139:1436-1449.

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